History repeating itself in Lubumbashi
Scramble for minerals to go green
Lubumbashi, a city in the mineral-rich Katanga region of the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC), has been central to global geopolitics since the 20th century. The area provided vast amounts of copper, essential for electrification, and uranium for the atomic bombs used in World War II.
However, this global demand came at a cost, as Lubumbashi developed under racial and spatial segregation, with Congolese workers exploited, abused, and taxed under colonial rule.
Today, history is repeating itself through neo-colonialism.
The southern DRC now produces over 70% of the world’s cobalt, a critical mineral for decarbonisation. Cobalt powers batteries in electric vehicles, mobile phones, and renewable energy storage. However, like copper and uranium before it, cobalt mining is tied to exploitation, child labour and corruption. Elite capture remains a defining feature of DRC’s mining sector.
As academics studying urbanisation, mining and sustainability, we argue that cities like Lubumbashi are crucial in shaping the modern world but are neglected in global urban theory. Ignoring African cities leads to data gaps and ineffective policies.
Furthermore, today’s cobalt mining mirrors colonial-era exploitation, stripping land and people of resources while benefiting the global north at the cost of lives in the global south. Sustainable cities and global decarbonisation are essential in combating climate change, but they must not reinforce historical injustices.
A Brief History of Lubumbashi
Lubumbashi, originally Elisabethville, was established by Belgium in 1910 to extract copper through the Union Minière du Haut Katanga (UMHK). Between 1885 and 1908, the Congo Free State was the private property of King Leopold II, who granted concessionary companies rights to extract minerals and rubber while imposing taxes on local people.
The Belgian Compagnie du Katanga, later UMHK, laid the physical and economic foundation for the region’s extractive industries. In exchange, it received a third of all unoccupied land in Katanga. The company built a copper smelter, roads, and infrastructure, and established temporary headquarters to supervise Elisabethville’s growth.
To control the local population, Belgium introduced a "hut tax," later replaced by a "head tax," which forced people into labour to pay their debt to the colonial state. Elisabethville was designed to maintain Belgian control and prevent British encroachment. The city mirrored the racially segregated grids of Bulawayo (Southern Rhodesia) and Johannesburg (South Africa).
As global copper demand surged, UMHK dominated the colonial economy, determining agriculture, labour and markets. Copper was vital for telegraph and electrical transmission cables worldwide.
With this economic power, UMHK expanded railways, cities, and mining sites across Katanga. This infrastructure later facilitated uranium extraction from the Shinkolobwe mine, which supplied the US with all the uranium used in the Hiroshima and Nagasaki bombs. This highlights Lubumbashi’s often-overlooked global significance.
Post-Colonial Struggles
Katanga seceded from the Congo just 11 days after gaining independence in 1960. The battle for control over its resources led to the US- and Belgian-backed assassination of Patrice Lumumba, Congo’s first independence leader. His successor, Mobutu Sese Seko, ruled for 32 years, nationalising UMHK in 1966. His regime was marked by corruption and economic exploitation.
Today, modern technology depends on cobalt, largely extracted in the DRC before being shipped, mainly to China. Cobalt is a byproduct of copper mining, and artisanal and small-scale miners, including children, work under dangerous conditions with little support. This reflects the historical marginalisation of the region’s workers. Lubumbashi remains the mining headquarters of the southern DRC, while cities like Kolwezi have expanded due to cobalt demand. Yet, spatial and labour inequalities from the past persist.
The DRC continues to suffer as foreign mining companies—South African, Kazakh, Swiss, and increasingly Chinese—engage in exploitative extraction, social displacement, and political corruption.
Why This Matters
Our research highlights the importance of understanding the history of extraction and urban development in Lubumbashi to address ongoing injustices. The same colonial dynamics of resource exploitation now shape global decarbonisation efforts. African populations endure poor living conditions while the global north transitions to cleaner technologies.
To achieve a just transition, we must move away from carbon-based economies without reinforcing historical inequalities. Sustainable mining practices, fair wages, and investment in local communities are critical. Without addressing these structural issues, the push for a green future will remain another form of neo-colonial extraction, benefiting a few while many continue to suffer.
*This is an excerpt from a report posted in The Conversation.
However, this global demand came at a cost, as Lubumbashi developed under racial and spatial segregation, with Congolese workers exploited, abused, and taxed under colonial rule.
Today, history is repeating itself through neo-colonialism.
The southern DRC now produces over 70% of the world’s cobalt, a critical mineral for decarbonisation. Cobalt powers batteries in electric vehicles, mobile phones, and renewable energy storage. However, like copper and uranium before it, cobalt mining is tied to exploitation, child labour and corruption. Elite capture remains a defining feature of DRC’s mining sector.
As academics studying urbanisation, mining and sustainability, we argue that cities like Lubumbashi are crucial in shaping the modern world but are neglected in global urban theory. Ignoring African cities leads to data gaps and ineffective policies.
Furthermore, today’s cobalt mining mirrors colonial-era exploitation, stripping land and people of resources while benefiting the global north at the cost of lives in the global south. Sustainable cities and global decarbonisation are essential in combating climate change, but they must not reinforce historical injustices.
A Brief History of Lubumbashi
Lubumbashi, originally Elisabethville, was established by Belgium in 1910 to extract copper through the Union Minière du Haut Katanga (UMHK). Between 1885 and 1908, the Congo Free State was the private property of King Leopold II, who granted concessionary companies rights to extract minerals and rubber while imposing taxes on local people.
The Belgian Compagnie du Katanga, later UMHK, laid the physical and economic foundation for the region’s extractive industries. In exchange, it received a third of all unoccupied land in Katanga. The company built a copper smelter, roads, and infrastructure, and established temporary headquarters to supervise Elisabethville’s growth.
To control the local population, Belgium introduced a "hut tax," later replaced by a "head tax," which forced people into labour to pay their debt to the colonial state. Elisabethville was designed to maintain Belgian control and prevent British encroachment. The city mirrored the racially segregated grids of Bulawayo (Southern Rhodesia) and Johannesburg (South Africa).
As global copper demand surged, UMHK dominated the colonial economy, determining agriculture, labour and markets. Copper was vital for telegraph and electrical transmission cables worldwide.
With this economic power, UMHK expanded railways, cities, and mining sites across Katanga. This infrastructure later facilitated uranium extraction from the Shinkolobwe mine, which supplied the US with all the uranium used in the Hiroshima and Nagasaki bombs. This highlights Lubumbashi’s often-overlooked global significance.
Post-Colonial Struggles
Katanga seceded from the Congo just 11 days after gaining independence in 1960. The battle for control over its resources led to the US- and Belgian-backed assassination of Patrice Lumumba, Congo’s first independence leader. His successor, Mobutu Sese Seko, ruled for 32 years, nationalising UMHK in 1966. His regime was marked by corruption and economic exploitation.
Today, modern technology depends on cobalt, largely extracted in the DRC before being shipped, mainly to China. Cobalt is a byproduct of copper mining, and artisanal and small-scale miners, including children, work under dangerous conditions with little support. This reflects the historical marginalisation of the region’s workers. Lubumbashi remains the mining headquarters of the southern DRC, while cities like Kolwezi have expanded due to cobalt demand. Yet, spatial and labour inequalities from the past persist.
The DRC continues to suffer as foreign mining companies—South African, Kazakh, Swiss, and increasingly Chinese—engage in exploitative extraction, social displacement, and political corruption.
Why This Matters
Our research highlights the importance of understanding the history of extraction and urban development in Lubumbashi to address ongoing injustices. The same colonial dynamics of resource exploitation now shape global decarbonisation efforts. African populations endure poor living conditions while the global north transitions to cleaner technologies.
To achieve a just transition, we must move away from carbon-based economies without reinforcing historical inequalities. Sustainable mining practices, fair wages, and investment in local communities are critical. Without addressing these structural issues, the push for a green future will remain another form of neo-colonial extraction, benefiting a few while many continue to suffer.
*This is an excerpt from a report posted in The Conversation.
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